Meaning, Origin and Main Features of Sufism
Meaning of Sufism:
The philosophy and practices of Sufism may very aptly be
stated in the words of Dr. Tara Chand,
“Sufism is a religion of intense devotion; Love is its
manifestation, poetry, music and dance are the instruments of its worship and
attaining oneness with God is its ideal.”
In other words, it implies that the ideal before an
individual should be to be one with God. For the attainment of this ideal,
intense devotion for God is needed in the individual. Devotion is reflected in
love. This love for the Almighty is expressed through three fold activities on
the part of the individual i.e. poetry of love towards God, music of love
towards God and dance of love towards God.
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Origin of Sufism:
It is generally believed that Sufism is derived from two
Arabic words i.e. ‘Saf’ and ‘Suf. The word ‘Saf means a carpet. Since the Sufis
meditated upon God on a carpet, Sufism took its birth i.e. pure people who
meditated on a carpet.
The word ‘Sufi’ derives its name from another Arabic word
‘Suf which means wool. The Muslim saints who wore garments of coarse wool began
to be called Sufi saints. The first epoch of Sufism is said to have begun in
the seventh century A.D.
Sufism entered India in the 12th century with Muslim
invaders and became popular in the 13th century.
Main Features of Sufism:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
1. Sufism derives is inspiration from Islam. While the
orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct and blind observance of religious
rituals, the Sufi saints seek inner purity.
2. According to Sufi saints, God is the beloved of the
lover (‘Mashook”) i.e. the devotee and the devotee is eager to meet his beloved
(God).
3. The Sufis think that love and devotion are the only
means of reaching God.
4. Along with Prophet Muhammad, they also attach great
importance to their ‘Murshid’ or ‘Pir’ (Guru).
ADVERTISEMENTS:
5. Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer
(Namaz)
6. Sufism does not believe in caste system.
7. Sufism emphasizes upon leading a simple life.
8. Sufi saints preached in Arabic, Persian and Urdu etc.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
9. The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a
mystic Sufi saint. Prominent Sufi Saints.
Khawja Moin-ud-Din Chisti (1143-1234 A.D.):
He came to India towards the close of the 12th century.
Initially he stayed at Lahore. Then he moved to Delhi and finally settled at
Ajmer. On account of his pious and simple life, people of different faiths
looked upon him as their spiritual teacher.
He mixed freely with the lower classes of both Hindus and
Muslims. He used to hold devotional musical gatherings. On account of his
virtues of renunciation, meditation and selfless service, people from different
parts of India came to his place at Ajmer.
His ‘dargah’ (tomb) at Ajmer (Ajmer Sharif) has become a
place of pilgrimage for the Muslims as well as the Hindus. His devotees believe
that by offering prayer at his tomb, their wishes (‘minit’) are fulfilled.
Baba Farid-ud-Din Ganj-i-Shakar (13th century):
His outlook was broad and humane. Some of his devotional
verses are found in ‘Adi-Granth’ of the Sikhs. Thousands of his devotees visit
his tomb at Faridkot in the Punjab.
Nizam-ud-Din Aulia (14th century):
He laid great stress on love as a means of the
realization of God. He said, “O Muslims! I swear by God that he holds dear
those who love Him for the sake of human beings and also those who love human
beings for the sake of Him. This is the only way to love and adore Him.”
During his life time he was held in great esteem by
several Sultans of Delhi as well as the general public.
He also used Hindi in his teachings.
His tomb at Nizam-ud-Din in Delhi has become a place of
pilgrimage for both Muslims and Hindus.
Impact of Sufism:
Religions impact:
The efforts of Sufi saints helped to lessen religious
fanaticism in India. Hindus in larger numbers became followers of Sufi saints.
The tombs built after their death has continued to become places of worship for
the Muslims as well as the Hindus. Their belief in unity of God helped to
remove mutual differences.
Social Impact:
Their stress on social welfare led to the establishment
of works of charitable nature i.e. opening of orphanages and women service
centres. The efforts of Sufi saints helped to promote equality and lessen the
evils of casteism. They also tried to infuse a spirit of piety and morality.
Political Impact:
Some of the renowned Sufi saints on account of their
virtuous and saintly life motivated some of the Delhi Sultans to follow a liberal
policy.
Cultural Impact:
The sacred places built in the memory of the Sufi saints
clearly demonstrate the development of a new type of architecture. The Dargah’
of Khawaja Muin-ud-Din Chisti at Ajmer and the Tomb of Nizam-ud-Din Aulia at
Delhi have a special place in architecture.
Sufi saints popularized devotional music and songs.
Several Sufi saints composed literary works in vernacular
languages.
Amir Khusro, a disciple of Nizam-ud-Din Aulia, was a
noted ‘guzzle’ writer. The poetry of Khusro was so full of sweetness that he
was called ‘Tutiy-i-Hind. He is credited with more than 90 works on different
subjects i.e. historical and romantic as well.
Study Notes on Sufism and Bhakti Movement
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Study Notes on Sufism and Bhakti Movement!
Sufism:
Sufi or Sufism is derived from Suf which means un-dyed
garments of wool worn as a mark of personal penitence and poverty.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The Sufis originally drew their ideas from certain verses
of the Quran and Hadith i.e. traditions of the prophet. Their difference with
orthodox Muslims lay in the fact that while the latter interpreted the Quran
and Hadith in a literal way, the Sufis gave a mystic interpretation to them.
Sufism flourished in Persia where from the Sufi saints
had fled to Kabul due to Safavi persecution. It may be recalled that Akbar’s
mother who was the daughter of a Persian scholar and was influenced by Sufism
sowed the seeds of toleration in the mind of her son Akbar. His early life in
Kabul also brought him in contact with Sufism.
Sufism believed in communion between man and God through
loving devotion. It is somewhat akin to Bhakti cult. Sufism had its own
practices and did not always conform to the rituals of orthodox Islam. For
instance singing, dancing etc. not permitted by the Muslim Ulamas were
considered by the Sufis as methods of reaching an ecstatic stage which would
bring them nearer to God.
Although the Sufis accepted Muhammad as prophet and the
authority of the Quran in course of time they drew diverse religious practices
from different religions such as Gnostic Christianity, Zoroastrianism,
Buddhism, Neo- Platonism and Indian philosophical system—the Vedanta and Yoga.
Sufism had been likened to a stream that gathered volume by joining of
tributaries from many lands.
Sufism found its way into India during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries when many Sufi saints came to India particularly in Multan
and Lahore of the Punjab. The most celebrated of these Sufi saints was Khwaja
Muinuddin Chisti who came to Lahore from Ghazni in 1161 and settled in Ajmer
under Prithviraj.
Muinuddin Chisti is the greatest Sufi and holds the
highest position of honour in the history of Sufism. He died in either 1235 or
1236 at Ajmer where his tomb is still today a place of pilgrimage for many.
Muinuddin Chisti founded the Chisti order of the Sufis in India. Shaikh Farid
Shakarganj (1175-1265) belonged to the Chisti order of the Sufis, Shaikh Farid
was one of the earliest contributors to Punjabi language and his writings are
regarded as the earliest specimens of Punjabi.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Some of his contributions were incorporated in the Adi
Granth by Guru Arjan and Shaikh Farid is known in Sikh tradition as Baba Farid.
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) settled near Delhi where his tomb is also
a shrine and centre of devotion and proselytism.
Apart from the Chisti order another Sufi order that
dminated the Muslim thought during the thirteenth and early years of the
fourteenth centuries was Suhrawardy order founded by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya.
In the fourteenth century, however, the influence of the Sufis declined due to
anti-Sufi attitude of Muhammad bin Tughluq and Sunni orthodoxy of Firuz Tughluq
which gave opportunity to the Ulamas to oppose the Sufi heterodoxy with greater
vehemence.
The result was that greater emphasis was laid on
religious ceremonies and rituals thus reducing religion into a mere formalism.
The predominance of the Ulamas, Mullas, Pirs continued from the latter half of
the fourteenth century to the first half of the sixteenth.
Besides the Chisti and Suhrawardy orders two more Sufi
orders were founded, namely the Qadivis by Sayyid Ghaus Wala Pir and the Shattaris
by Shaikh Abdul Shattari in the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century
Khwaja Baqi Billa founded the Naqsbandi order.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
During the sixteenth and earlier part of the eighteenth
the Sufi poets made great contribution to Punjabi literature. Sufi poetry
appealed to the heart of the common people and became very popular among all
classes of people of the Punjab. Spiritual urges are expressed in terms of
simple objects familiar to common folk, such as the spinning wheel, the Persian
wheel, the dancing Dervishes, Characters drawn from popular mythology Hindu as
well as Muslim.
Among the Sufis of this period the names of Hafiz Barkhudar
Vajid, Ali Haidar, Sultan Bahu, Shah Hussain and Bulhe Shah deserve mention.
Sultan Bahu was a mystic dervish. He expressed himself in passionate poetry of
devotion and renunciation. Shah Hussain was a fakir given to free way of life,
loved by the people for his sincerity of passion and devotion, but reproved by
the orthodox Muslims.
The song-lyrics practiced by Hussain and other Sufi poets
is known as Kafi. Bulhe Shah was, however, the prince of the Sufi poets. Some
sects were founded in the seventeenth century which emphasised the unity of
religions between the Hindus and the Muslims. The name of Dadu (1544- 1603)
stands foremost among the founders of such sects. Dadu founded the Parabrahma
Sampradaya with a view to uniting different faiths in one bond of love and
comradeship.
A Kshatriya of Malwa named Baba Lai gave seven interviews
to Dara Shukoh in 1648 and their conversations are recorded in a Persian work
named Nadu un Mikat which is an admixture of the Vedanta and Sufi doctrines. A
few other sects apart from Parabrahma Sampradaya were those of Qalandar and
Jangam. The followers of the latter were fakirs who like Hindu Sannyasis kept
long matted hair and wandered about. Under Shah Jahan the renowned Sufi and
author Muhibbullah Illahabadi wrote a commentary on Quarn from sufistic view
point, entitled Maratib al-Arbaah.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Lastly, it may be pointed out that Sufis helped the
spread of Islam in India by emphasising social equality of all men. Many of the
Sufis were men of great learning; they were guides to good life. They are
“thought of as forming a bridge of understanding with the Hindu Bhakti
movement, with their emphasis on the inner life and the unity of all believers
in one God.”
Bhakti Movement:
Bhakti is intense devotion’ to God conceived as personal,
a Saviour worthy of trust and ready to be gracious, it is an important element
of Vaishavism and Saivism as expounded in the Gita and Svetasvatara Upanishad.
Followers of Bhakti cult preached the fundamental equality of all religions and
the unity of Godhead, and held that dignity of man depended on his actions and
not on his birth, protested against too much ritualism and formalities in
matters of religion as also the domination of the priesthood. They emphasised
simple devotion and faith as a means of salvation for one and all. Substance of
Bhakti cult lies in loving devotion to the supreme Diety variously named
Krishna, Vishnu, Narayana etc. and communion with Him.
Bhakti was propagated by Ramanuja in the eleventh century
and during the period twelfth to fourteenth centuries it was propagated in
South India by the Vaishnava teachers like Nimbarka, Lokacharya, Vedantadesika,
Madhava Pillai etc. The Bhakti movement in the period between the sixth and the
twelfth centuries was raised above caste restrictions in the Tamil country
where the Alvars and Adiyars introduced this revolutionary social equality.
One of the preachers arose from the lower caste.
Likewise, the Bhakti movement in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries tended
to raise the status of non-Brahmanas. Some of the non-Brahmanas became the
spiritual preachers of the Brahmanas. During the Mughal period a considerable
Bhakti literature grew up in Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Gujarati and Assamese
languages.
With the establishment of the Turkish rule in North
India, Islam came as a challenge to Hinduism and Hindu society. Bhakti cult met
this challenge of Islam by introducing a liberal character in the society under
Ramananda’s leadership. He is said to have been born in Mysore by some and at
Allahabad by others and perhaps lived during the end of the fourteenth and
early years of the fifteenth centuries.
Ramananda served as “the bridge between the Bhakti
movement of the South and the North.” He preached in the language of the common
people, i.e. Hindi. He rejected castes and admitted men of all classes as his
disciples, among whom were a cobbler, a barber and a Muhammadan weaver, namely
Kabir. Ramananda was a worshipper of Rama and his followers are still numerous
in the Gangetic plain.
Mira Bai, a Rajput princess renounced the palace life of
Chitor and became a disciple of the follower of Ramananda. Ramananda’s
doctrines were embodied by her in Hindi and Gujarati devotional verses of high
quality. Some of Ramananda’s hymns have been included in the Adi Granth by Guru
Arjan.
Ramananda is supposed to have been connected with the
great Vaishnava Ramanuja. But Ramananda substituted Ram and Sita for Vishnu and
Lakshmi of Ramanuja sect as objects of devotion. Ramananda propagated his
Bhakti cult in Hindi and not in Sanskrit as did Ramanuja sect, and thus his
appeal to common people was great as they understood his language.
Ramananda raised his movement above caste prejudices,
unlike Ramanuja sect, allowing people of all castes high or low to eat and
drink together, thus get emancipated from the restrictions of caste prejudices.
The followers of Ramananda were therefore, known as Abhadhuts, i.e.
emancipated.
Ramananda considered formalities of worship as immaterial
and superfluous, for, “supreme reward” would come to the devotee by incessant
taking of the name of God. One, who loves God, is loved by God Himself.
“Whoever adores God is God’s own” he would say, hence there was no question of
any one’s identification by his caste or birth.
The liberal idea propagated by Ramananda appears to have
been to an extent due to the impact of Islam. This was most likely for he lived
during the period of Muslim rule in India. But his liberalism in matters of
castes and inter-dining was regarded as a great threat to Hindu orthodoxy. But
despite a section of orthodox Hindus, who would like to cling to traditional
class restrictions in social behaviours, the need for acceptance of the
challenge of Islam and socio-religious adjustment was felt by a liberal section
of the Hindus and as such Ramananda’s movement was welcomed by them. Ramananda
did not leave any organised sect behind him and this was the reason why while
his influence had flowed into different channels it lost its momentum in its
original form.
Amir Khusrow
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Aamir Khusrow
Amir Khusro.jpg
Amir Khusrow teaching his disciples in a miniature from a
manuscript of Majlis al-Ushshaq by Husayn Bayqarah.
Background information
Birth name Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn K͟husrau
Born 1253
Patiyali, Delhi Sultanate
Died October 1325 (aged 71-72)
Delhi, Delhi Sultanate
Genres Ghazal, Qawwali, Ruba'i, Tarana
Occupation(s) Sufi, musician, poet, composer, author,
scholar
[hide]Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim
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Sufism and Tariqat
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v t e
Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau (1253 – 1325) (Urdu: ابوالحسن
یمینالدین خسرو), better known as Amīr Khusrow Dehlavī, was a Sufi musician,
poet and scholar from the Indian subcontinent. He was an iconic figure in the
cultural history of the Indian subcontinent. He was a mystic and a spiritual
disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi. He wrote poetry primarily in Persian,
but also in Hindavi. A vocabulary in verse, the Ḳhāliq Bārī, containing Arabic,
Persian, and Hindavi terms is often attributed to him.[1] Khusrow is sometimes
referred to as the "voice of India" (Tuti-e-Hind), and has been
called the "father of Urdu literature."[2][3][4][5]
Khusrow is regarded as the "father of qawwali"
(a devotional music form of the Sufis in the Indian subcontinent), and
introduced the ghazal style of song into India, both of which still exist
widely in India and Pakistan.[6][7] Khusrow was an expert in many styles of
Persian poetry which were developed in medieval Persia, from Khāqānī's qasidas
to Nizami's khamsa. He used 11 metrical schemes with 35 distinct divisions. He
wrote in many verse forms including ghazal, masnavi, qata, rubai, do-baiti and
tarkib-band. His contribution to the development of the ghazal was
significant.[8]
Alexander Visits the Sage Plato, from the Khamsa of Amir
Khusrow
Contents
1 Family background
2 Early years
3 Career
4 Qawwali
5 Legacy
5.1 Development of Hindavi
5.2 700th Birth Anniversary
6 Shalimar Bagh Inscription
7 Works
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 Further reading
12 External links
Family background
Amīr Khusrow was born in 1253 at Patiyali near Etah in
modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India, in what was then the Delhi Sultanate, the son
of Amīr Saif ud-Dīn Mahmūd, a man of Turkic extraction, by his Indian Rajput
wife Bibi Daulatnaz.
Amīr Khusrow's father, Amīr Saif ud-Dīn Mahmūd, was born
a member of the Lachin tribe of Transoxania, themselves belonging to the
Kara-Khitai set of Turkic tribes.[8][9][10] He belonged to Kesh, a small town
near Samarkhand in what is now Uzbekistan, and that is where he grew up. When
he was a young man, that country was despoiled and ravaged by Genghis Khan's
invasion of Central Asia, and much of the population fled to other lands, India
being a favored destination. Amir Saif ud-Din migrated from his hometown of
Kesh to Balkh (now in northern Afghanistan), which was a relatively safe place;
from here, they sent representations seeking refuge and succour to the Sultan
of distant Delhi. This was granted, and the group then travelled to Delhi.
Sultan Shams ud-Din Iltutmish, ruler of Delhi, was himself a Turk like them;
indeed, he had been raised in the same region of central Asia, and had
undergone somewhat similar circumstances in earlier life. He not only welcomed
the refugees to his court but also granted high offices and landed estates to
some of them. Iltutmish provided shelter and lavish patronage to exiled
princes, artisans, scholars and rich nobles. In 1230, Amir Saif ud-Din was
granted a fief in the district of Patiyali.
Amir Saif ud-Din married Bibi Daulatnaz, the daughter of
Rawat Arz of the Rajput caste who was the famous war minister of Ghiyas ud-Din
Balban, the ninth Sultan of Delhi. Daulatnaz's family belonged to the Rajput
community of modern-day Uttar Pradesh.[10][11]
Early years
Amir Saif ud-Din and his Rajput-born Indian wife Bibi
Daulatnaz became the parents of four children: three sons (one of whom was
Khusrow) and a daughter. Amir Saif ud-Din Mahmud died in 1260, when Khusrow was
only seven years old. After the death of her husband, Khusrow's mother moved
back to her father's house in Delhi with her children. It was thus in the house
of his Rajput maternal grandfather, Rawat Arz (known by his title as
Imad-ul-Mulk), that Khusrow was raised. He thus grew up very close to the
culture and traditions of Indian society, and was not alienated from real
Indian society in the way that the ruling Turkic classes may have been. He grew
up rooted in his environment, and not hankering after some foreign land. Over
and over again in his poetry, and throughout his life, he affirmed that he was
Indian and nothing else ("I have not the noteds of Misr or fars he says).
Khusrow was an intelligent child. He started learning and
writing poetry at the age of eight. His first divan, Tuhfat us-Sighr (The Gift
of Childhood), containing poems composed between the ages of 16 and 18, was
compiled in 1271. In 1273, when Khusrow was 20 years old, his grandfather, who
was reportedly 113 years old, died.
Career
After Khusrow's grandfather's death, Khusrow joined the
army of Malik Chajju, a nephew of the reigning Sultan, Ghiyas ud-Din Balban.
This brought his poetry to the attention of the Assembly of the Royal Court
where he was honored.
Nasir ud-Din Bughra Khan, the second son of Balban, was
invited to listen to Khusrow. He was impressed and became Khusrow's patron in
1276. In 1277 Bughra Khan was then appointed ruler of Bengal, and Khusrow
visited him in 1279 while writing his second divan, Wast ul-Hayat (The Middle
of Life). Khusrow then returned to Delhi. Balban's eldest son, Khan Muhammad
(who was in Multan), arrived in Delhi, and when he heard about Khusrow he
invited him to his court. Khusrow then accompanied him to Multan in 1281.
Multan at the time was the gateway to India and was a center of knowledge and
learning. Caravans of scholars, tradesmen and emissaries transited through
Multan from Baghdad, Arabia and Persia on their way to Delhi. Khusrow wrote
that:
I tied the belt of service on my waist and put on the cap
of companionship for another five years. I imparted lustre to the water of
Multan from the ocean of my wits and pleasantries.
On 9 March 1285, Khan Muhammad was killed in battle while
fighting Mongols who were invading the Sultanate. Khusrow wrote two elegies in
grief of his death. In 1287, Khusrow travelled to Awadh with another of his
patrons, Amir Ali Hatim. At the age of eighty, Balban called his second son
Bughra Khan back from Bengal, but Bughra Khan refused. After Balban's death in
1287, his grandson Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad, Bughra Khan's son, was made the Sultan
of Delhi at the age of 17. Khusrow remained in Qaiqabad's service for two
years, from 1287 to 1288. In 1288 Khusrow finished his first masnavi, Qiran
us-Sa'dain (Meeting of the Two Auspicious Stars), which was about Bughra Khan
meeting his son Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad after a long enmity. After Qaiqabad
suffered a stroke in 1290, nobles appointed his three-year-old son Shams ud-Din
Kayumars as Sultan. A Turk named Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji then marched on
Delhi, killed Qaiqabad and became Sultan, thus ending the Mamluk dynasty of the
Delhi Sultanate and starting the Khalji dynasty.
Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji appreciated poetry and invited
many poets to his court. Khusrow was honoured and respected in his court and
was given the title "Amir". He was given the job of
"Mushaf-dar". Court life made Khusrow focus more on his literary
works. Khusrow's ghazals which he composed in quick succession were set to
music and were sung by singing girls every night before the Sultan. Khusrow
writes about Jalal ud-Din Firuz:
The King of the world Jalal ud-Din, in reward for my
infinite pain which I undertook in composing verses, bestowed upon me an
unimaginable treasure of wealth.
In 1290 Khusrow completed his second masnavi, Miftah
ul-Futuh (Key to the Victories), in praise of Jalal ud-Din Firuz's victories.
In 1294 Khusrow completed his third divan, Ghurrat ul-Kamaal (The Prime of
Perfection), which consisted of poems composed between the ages of 34 and 41.
After Jalal ud-Din Firuz, Ala ud-Din Khalji ascended to
the throne of Delhi in 1296. Khusrow wrote the Khaza'in ul-Futuh (The Treasures
of Victory) recording Ala ud-Din's construction works, wars and administrative
services. He then composed a khamsa (quintet) with five masnavis, known as
Khamsa-e-Khusrow (Khamsa of Khusrow), completing it in 1298. The khamsa
emulated that of the earlier poet of Persian epics, Nizami Ganjavi. The first
masnavi in the khamsa was Matla ul-Anwar (Rising Place of Lights) consisting of
3310 verses (completed in 15 days) with ethical and Sufi themes. The second
masnavi, Khusrow-Shirin, consisted of 4000 verses. The third masnavi,
Laila-Majnun, was a romance. The fourth voluminous masnavi was
Aina-e-Sikandari, which narrated the heroic deeds of Alexander the Great in
4500 verses. The fifth masnavi was Hasht-Bihisht, which was based on legends
about Bahram V, the fifteenth king of the Sasanian Empire. All these works made
Khusrow a leading luminary in the world of poetry. Ala ud-Din Khalji was highly
pleased with his work and rewarded him handsomely. When Ala ud-Din's son and
future successor Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khalji was born, Khusrow prepared the
horoscope of Mubarak Shah Khalji in which certain predictions were made. This
horoscope is included in the masnavi Saqiana.[12]
In 1300, when Khusrow was 47 years old, his mother and
brother died. He wrote these lines in their honour:
A double radiance left my star this year
Gone are my brother and my mother,
My two full moons have set and ceased to shine
In one short week through this ill-luck of mine.
Khusrow's homage to his mother on her death was:
Where ever the dust of your feet is found is like a relic
of paradise for me.
In 1310 Khusrow became close to a Sufi saint of the
Chishti Order, Nizamuddin Auliya. In 1315, Khusrow completed the romantic
masnavi Duval Rani - Khizr Khan (Duval Rani and Khizr Khan), about the marriage
of the Vaghela princess Duval Rani to Khizr Khan, one of Ala ud-Din Khalji's
sons.
After Ala ud-Din Khalji's death in 1316, his son Qutb
ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khalji became the Sultan of Delhi. Khusrow wrote a masnavi
on Mubarak Shah Khalji called Nuh Sipihr (Nine Skies), which described the
events of Mubarak Shah Khalji's reign. He classified his poetry in nine
chapters, each part of which is considered a "sky". In the third
chapter he wrote a vivid account of India and its environment, seasons, flora
and fauna, cultures, scholars, etc. He wrote another book during Mubarak Shah
Khalji's reign by name of Ijaz-e-Khusravi (The Miracles of Khusrow), which
consisted of five volumes. In 1317 Khusrow compiled Baqia-Naqia (Remnants of
Purity). In 1319 he wrote Afzal ul-Fawaid (Greatest of Blessings), a work of
prose that contained the teachings of Nizamuddin Auliya.
In 1320 Mubarak Shah Khalji was killed by Khusro Khan,
who thus ended the Khalji dynasty and briefly became Sultan of Delhi. Within
the same year, Khusro Khan was captured and beheaded by Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq,
who became Sultan and thus began the Tughlaq dynasty. In 1321 Khusrow began to
write a historic masnavi named Tughlaq Nama (Book of the Tughlaqs) about the
reign of Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq and that of other Tughlaq rulers.
Khusrow died in October 1325, six months after the death
of Nizamuddin Auliya. Khusrow's tomb is next to that of his spiritual master in
the Nizamuddin Dargah in Delhi.[13] Nihayat ul-Kamaal (The Zenith of
Perfection) was compiled probably a few weeks before his death.
Qawwali
File:Friday Evening Qawali at Dargah Salim Chisti,
Fatehpur Sikri, UP, India.theora.ogv
Friday evening qawwali at the Tomb of Salim Chishti in
Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Khusrow is credited with fusing the Persian, Arabic,
Turkish, and Indian musical traditions in the late 13th century to create
qawwali, a form of Sufi devotional music.[14] Qaul (Arabic: قَوْل) is an
"utterance (of the prophet)", Qawwāl is someone who often repeats
(sings) a Qaul, and Qawwāli is what a Qawwāl sings. The word sama is often
still used in Central Asia and Turkey to refer to forms very similar to
qawwali.
Legacy
An illustrated manuscript of one of Amir Khusrow's poems.
Amir Khusrow was a prolific classical poet associated
with the royal courts of more than seven rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. He
wrote many playful riddles, songs and legends which have become a part of
popular culture in South Asia. His riddles are one of the most popular forms of
Hindavi poetry today.[15] It is a genre that involves double entendre or
wordplay.[15] Innumerable riddles by the poet have been passed through oral
tradition over the last seven centuries.[15] Through his literary output,
Khusrow represents one of the first recorded Indian personages with a true
multicultural or pluralistic identity. Musicians credit Khusrau with the
creation of six styles of music: qaul, qalbana, naqsh, gul, tarana and khyal,
but there is insufficient evidence for this.[16][17]
Amir Khusro’s putative associations with the Tarana run
much deeper. One of the most persistent legends of Hindustani music relates to
the encounter between Amir Khusro, who was then associated with the court of
emperor Allauddin Khalji, and Gopal Nayak, court-musician to the king of
Devagiri. Allauddin commanded Gopal Nayak to present the Raga Kadambak for six
evenings running. During the entire performance, Khusro lay concealed under the
emperor’s throne, and stealthily absorbed all that the Nayak had sung. On the
seventh day, he astonished everyone present in the court by reproducing all
that Gopal Nayak had presented. However, since he couldn’t follow the Nayak’s
language, he substituted the text of the compositions with meaningless
syllables. And that is how the Tarana was born! (Willard 1834: 121) [18]
Development of Hindavi
Khusrow wrote primarily in Persian. Many Hindustani
(historically known as Hindavi) verses are attributed to him, although there is
no evidence for their composition by Khusrow before the 18th century.[19][20]
The language of the Hindustani verses appear to be relatively modern. He also
wrote a war ballad in Punjabi.[21] In addition, he spoke Arabic and
Sanskrit.[10][22][23][24][25][26][27] His poetry is still sung today at Sufi
shrines throughout Pakistan and India.
700th Birth Anniversary
In 1976 the renowned Pakistani musician Khurshid Anwar
played a key role in observing the 700th birth anniversary of Amir Khusrow.
Since he was also a musicologist, he wrote one of his rare music articles on
Amir Khusrow, "A gift to posterity". In addition, he actively planned
music events and activities throughout 1976. In Pakistan, Anwar had also been
praised for his efforts to keep alive classical music not only through his many
film compositions in Pakistan, but also through his unique collection of
classical music performances recorded by EMI Pakistan, known as
Aahang-e-Khusravi in two parts in 1978. The second part of the
Aahang-e-Khusravi recordings was known as Gharanon Ki Gaiyki which consisted of
audio recordings of representatives of the main gharanas of classical singers
in Pakistan on 20 audio cassettes. All this was meant to be a tribute to Amir
Khusrow.[28]
Shalimar Bagh Inscription
Inscribed in the top terrace of the Shalimar Bagh,
Srinagar (now in Jammu and Kashmir, India), are some famous phrases in Persian,
which are sometimes attributed to Khusrow, although are not found in any of his
written works:
Agar Firdaus bar ru-ye zamin ast,
Hamin ast o hamin ast o hamin ast.
In English: "If there is a paradise on earth, it is
this, it is this, it is this."[29][30][31] This verse is also found on
several Mughal structures, supposedly in reference to Kashmir.[32]
Works
Mughal illustrated page from the Hasht-Bihisht,
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Tuhfat us-Sighr (The Gift of Childhood), 1271 - Khusrow's
first divan, contains poems composed between the ages of 16 and 18.
Wast ul-Hayat (The Middle of Life), 1279 - Khusrow's
second divan.
Qiran us-Sa’dain (Meeting of the Two Auspicious Stars),
1289 - Khusrow's first masnavi, which detailed the historic meeting of Bughra
Khan and his son Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad after a long enmity.
Miftah ul-Futuh (Key to the Victories), 1290 - Khusrow's
second masnavi, in praise of the victories of Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji.
Ghurrat ul-Kamaal (The Prime of Perfection), 1294 - poems
composed by Khusrow between the ages of 34 and 41.
Khaza'in ul-Futuh (The Treasures of Victories), 1296 -
details of Ala ud-Din Khalji's construction works, wars, and administrative
services.
Khamsa-e-Khusrow (Khamsa of Khusrow), 1298 - a quintet
(khamsa) of five masnavis: Matla ul-Anwar, Khusrow-Shirin, Laila-Majnun,
Aina-e-Sikandari and Hasht-Bihisht.
Saqiana - masnavi containing the horoscope of Qutb ud-Din
Mubarak Shah Khalji.
Duval Rani - Khizr Khan (Duval Rani and Khizr Khan), 1316
- a tragedy about the marriage of princess Duval Rani to Ala ud-Din Khalji's
son Khizr Khan.
Nuh Sipihr (Nine Skies), 1318 - Khusrow's masnavi on the
reign of Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khalji, which includes vivid perceptions of
India and its culture.
Ijaz-e-Khusravi (The Miracles of Khusrow) - an assortment
of prose consisting of five volumes.
Baqia-Naqia (Remnants of Purity), 1317 - compiled by
Khusrow at the age of 64.
Afzal ul-Fawaid (Greatest of Blessings), 1319 - a work of
prose containing the teachings of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Tughlaq Nama (Book of the Tughlaqs), 1320 - a historic
masnavi of the reign of the Tughlaq dynasty.
Nihayat ul-Kamaal (The Zenith of Perfection), 1325 - compiled
by Khusrow probably a few weeks before his death.
Qissa Chahar Dervesh (The Tale of the Four Dervishes) - a
dastan told by Khusrow to Nizamuddin Auliya, resulting in Auliya becoming cured
from his illness.
Ḳhāliq Bārī - a versified glossary of Persian, Arabic,
and Hindavi words and phrases often attributed to Amir Khusrow. Hafiz Mehmood
Khan Shirani argued that it was completed in 1622 in Gwalior by Ẓiyā ud-Dīn Ḳhusrau.[33]
Jawahir-e-Khusravi - a divan often dubbed as Khusrow's
Hindavi divan.
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